The Biography of Andrew Johnson

Andrew Johnson was born on December 1808. He was the 17th president of the United States. Johnson had been born into extreme poverty and had no formal education. Yet with determination and hard work, he had risen rapidly through politics, to state government and on to national office. He married Eliza McCardle, who was a school-teacher and was a big part of Johnson†s education, she helped him learn how to write and do arithmetic. He had three sons and two daughters. Andrew Johnson was a democratic and had served in the Senate from 1857- 1862. In the early months of the Civil War, Johnson was forced to flee his own state to avoid arrest. When federal troops conquered Nashville, he resigned his Senate seat in March 1862 to accept President Lincoln†s appointment as military governor of Tennessee. He served as vice president for a month in 1865, and as president for the balance of Lincoln†s terms. In January 1875, Johnson won back his former Senate seat after a struggle that forced the Tennessee legislature through 56 separate ballots. Johnson took his Senate deposition before the same body that only seven years earlier had failed by a single vote to remove him from the White House on March 5, 1875. During the 19 day Senate special session, he delivered a political turmoil in Louisiana and then returned to Tennessee, where he died four months later on July 31, 1875. He suffered from a stroke. Johnson was buried on a hilltop in Greenville, wrapped in a 37 star flag with a copy of the Constitution under his head.

Psychology – Biological Explanation of Eating Disorders

Psychology Essay The biological approach suggests that AN is due a physical cause, suggesting it could be due to something within the body or brain; such as hypothalamus dysfunction or an imbalance of neurotransmitters. The hypothalamus dysfunction theory would suggest that animals have a â€Å"set weight† which is correct for their body, if this weight should increase or decrease then the body should make adjustments to regulate food intake to their â€Å"set weight†.The hypothalamus is thought to have quite a lot of control over our eating behaviour, the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is considered to be the feeding switch that makes an individual begin to feed whereas the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety switch that makes an individual stop feeding. Garfinkel and Gardner (1982) suggested that a disturbed hypothalamus may be the cause of AN, they proposed that any disturbance could lead to either the LH or VMH to be constantly activated.In order to explain AN it is most likely that when the LH is damaged and that the individual never receives a signal (feeling hungry) to begin feeding, if the VMH were damaged then the individual would receive a constant signal to eat so they would never stop feeding. This supports the idea that AN might have a biological explanation, specifically brain dysfunction.Anand and Brobeck conducted an experiment involving the rats, they found that if the LH was damaged it could lead to aphagia (this is a failure to eat when hungry), this provides support for the idea that damage to the hypothalamus can lead to reduced eating which is support for the biological approach of AN. However, there are some concerns with this as the test was conducted with the use of animals so it’s hard to generalise the findings to humans.This is because humans and animals are biologically different so it’s hard to know if humans would respond in the same way if their LH was damaged. Additional research has shown us th at when the VMH in rats is stimulated that it stops feeding, which again supports the suggestion that possible over activation of the VMH could result in reduced feeding. This research would also support the biological explanation of AN as if an individual has damage to their hypothalamus then it could result in reduced feeding which would then result in dramatic weight loss, as seen in sufferers of AN.However, this theory is reductionist as it suggests that the only explanation of AN is a biological reason, and it ignores other factors; like things such as stress or sexual abuse which can both lead to AN. Another biological explanation of AN would be that there is an imbalance of serotonin, which is usually associated with depression and anxiety; as disturbed levels of serotonin have been found in AN sufferers.It is also likely that eating disorders arise due to high levels of anxiety which is linked with high levels of serotonin in the body. Bailer et al (1970) compared serotonin activity in recovering anorexia suffers and healthy controls. They found significantly higher activity in the women that were recovering from anorexia, the highest levels found in those women with the highest anxiety levels. This also provides support for AN having a biological cause, in this case an imbalance of neurotransmitters.However, it’s difficult to establish cause and effect in Bailer’s research, this is because the women studied were already recovering from an eating disorder and so it’s impossible to know whether the imbalance of serotonin was the cause of the women’s AN or whether the AN causes an imbalance of serotonin, so it’s hard to know whether or not there is a biological cause of AN with these findings. In addition to this the research is also gender biased, in this case it’s alpha biased as only women were used in this study but it’s generalising the study to men as well. Bailer’s research also raises the de bate of determinism vs. ree will. The biological approach is deterministic so if an individual has an imbalance of serotonin they will then develop an eating disorder, however this is ignoring our free will as an individual that exercises regularly will over their eating; this is noted in individuals who suffer from anxiety but don’t develop AN. Finally there is the evolutionary approach which suggests that all our behaviours are adaptive, which means that the reason we do certain things is to help us survive in a certain way; according to this theory AN is a behaviour which helps them survive.The evolutionary approach focuses on our ancestors, when weight loss and eating disorders weren’t a consideration and any weight loss would be a lack of food rather than a desire for â€Å"thinness†. Usually when an individual begins to love weight physiological mechanisms activate in order to conserve energy and increase desires for food, however it would not have been ad aptive for our ancestors to feel hunger as there may not have been much food available to them, so instead it would be adaptive to â€Å"switch off† the desire so that they could then find food; in order to help our survival.Therefore many characteristics of AN can be considered adaptive to enable our ancestors to move to areas where there was more food rather than being preoccupied by looking for food in their current location. However, this theory doesn’t explain the differences of AN between genders, as girls are more affected by AN than boys; so if the behaviour was adapted then both men and women would be equally effected by this as both genders would have had to search for more food in other areas.An alternative approach to explaining how AN would come from the behaviour approach, which suggests AN is the result of learning rather than a biological explanation. This approach suggests that individuals suffer from AN because of reinforcement, so they have witnessed slim people (who become their role models) being rewarded for their behaviour so they imitate their behaviour in expectation of the same reward.

Comparing Two Adverts

Compare the two adverts The two diverse adverts I have selected to analyse consists of a Rimmel London mascara advert and a vegetarian â€Å"fight the fat† advert. I will discuss in detail the purpose of each advert, the layout, Language and audience amongst many other qualities these two adverts consist of. The purpose of Rimmel Londons advert is to inform females who are specifically interested in mascara of the Rimmel Londons â€Å"NEW EXTREAME BLACK MAGNIF’EYES MASCARA†. In doing so this advert is very persuasive as they would like their product to be bought. In comparison, the second advert annualised, is a healthy eating organisation. This PETA. org. UK advert is being used in order to persuade adults (someone other than a â€Å"child†) not to feed children meat as it â€Å"is child abuse†. Moreover this advert is being used to advertise the organisation supporting this claim and inform the audience of their web address. The objective to Peta. org. uk is to deter children from eating meat and communicate the idea that meat has a consequence on a child’s health and adult should not feed them it as they are causing them harm. Likewise, Women aged between eighteen and above are the targeted audience for Rimmel London’s product. I am given this impression as Kate Moss; a successful ‘cool’ style and beauty icon (many men love and women look up to) is the model being used to display and promote this product. This is an advantage as it would boost Rimmel London’s sales due to the fact that many women would purchase this product satisfied with Kate’s involvement and simply in order to feel beautiful, like Kate moss and model material. As with the Peta organisation advertisement, the audience this advert is being subjected to is everyone, although it is mainly for anyone other than a â€Å"child† yet imperative for parents. This advert uses the burger which is a common unhealthy food yet favourite to some, to attract the attention of their audience, everyone. However, a wide eyed obese child eager to consume the burger is being used in order to attract the attention of other children and parents. This image along with the adverts heading is very ironic and would shock parents above all as the child in the image is eating a substance which is â€Å"abusing† them. â€Å"Feeding kid’s meat† is not often related to â€Å"child abuse† although parents will relate to the image greatly for they would compare their child/children to the boy crossing the ine of morbid obesity in the picture. Popular Rimmel London mascara advert uses a wide range of persuasive techniques in order to boost the sales of their product. Such techniques include statistics, as the advert states â€Å"70% MORE VERTICAL LASHES†. This statement is a large claim and readers would be extremely amused by it , furthermore it is produced in capital letters in order to gather the reader’s attention and compliment its extremity, as with other statements in this advert. The name in which the product is labelled with plays with words cleverly, giving the impression that who ever purchases this product will immediately have magnificent eyes â€Å"MAGNIF’EYES† this clever conjunction additionally encourages the â€Å"BREAK THROUGH EYE MAGNIFIER BRUSH† Rimmel London have achieved. Standard English is the language used in the two adverts, however the statement â€Å"Feeding kids meat is child abuse† is written in as a matter of fact and not opinion. By doing so, this misleads readers along with being very controversial, as not many would agree with it. However now that many readers (parents) are informed of the negative opinions regarding meat, it is there obligation to research this claim and find out whether or not they are abusing children (their child). As this advert promotes healthy eating â€Å"FIGHT THE FAT† is a part of this advert slogan. This statement is not only alliteration but also a representation of the type of food they are encouraging, vegetables. The use of alliteration lightens the situation yet â€Å"GO VEG† gives the impression of a protest which portrays the determination and seriousness of the situation. â€Å"BLACK ON BLACK† again is the heading and example of alliteration used in Rimmel Londons Mascara advert. This phrase is not only used to describe the extreme colour of the mascara but also used to describe mutual violence between the African races, as a result the use of this phrase could trick a quick reader of African heritage as it relates to them, and therefor this advert would be receiving the attention of a wider audience. The choice of adjectives and nouns are to the highest standard. An impression of a fresh product is what I am given when I am presented with the word â€Å"NEW EXTREAME†. The Audience would feel honoured to buy a product which is so recent and exceedingly great in degree. â€Å"Outstanding lash lift† the use of this adjective marks the excellence in which this mascara lifts your eye lashes. By purchasing this product, women would believe that their eyelashes would extend as long as Kate’s (in the advert) when applying the ascara; although the picture has been edited by Photoshop and is in fact not her real eyelashes. â€Å"DOUBLE HIT† also indicates to the audience that they are purchasing two in one; the mascara does not only achieve length, but also volume making the audience feel privileged enough to purchase this product. Similarly the â€Å"BREAKTHROUGH EYE MAGNIFIER BRUSH† gives the impression that in order to make this product Rimmel London h ave overcome a restriction and have in turn achieved success which will allow their further progress. The writing is placed clearly with maximum of two rows at the bottom of the page in insure Kate Moss’s face is not hidden and make the reading easier for readers. As for the healthy eating advert white is the chosen background colour given. In doing so the audience’s full attention is directed to the writing making the background not at all a distraction but complimentary to the writing. A large font size is used in order for readers at first glance to read the statement. Two font sizes are used in this add one smaller than the other. The natural colours used are red, blue and green in order to portray the healthiness in the subject. The website is highlighted in order for it to be clear and concise for the audience in order to get in contact with the organisation. However the feminine use of the colour red (both in the background and font) not only attracts their attention of the Rimmel Londons audience, but also sets the scene and feel of this mascara making it an irresistibly, feminine and lustful object every women should own and not be without. The Black circle used in the background of Kate in addition gives a hypnotising effect to in order the audience to be given the impression that once this mascara is applied everyone will be mesmerised. The magnified image of the mascara brush gives the audience a scientific perspective into how minuet the brush bristles are making them even more wondrous. The Small font size is ironic as it complements the mascaras objective, whereas the use of white font is given in order to make the reading simple for the audience and is also used to highlight â€Å"Rimmel† to give awareness of the mascara brand. In conclusion the two adverts analysed contrast greatly, factors including the amount of design (Rimmel more than Peta), purpose of each advert, audience which the two adverts are aimed at alongside many more important factors, although the two adverts fit under the category of health and beauty. In my opinion the two adverts where indeed correct in how they communicated to their objective to the chosen audience making both as successful as each other.

A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings, and The Yellow Wall Paper Essay

A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings, and The Yellow Wall Paper - Essay Example This led to almost a unanimous conclusion that he would have been an angle were it not on the mortal features that would be observed from him. The theme of the supernatural in the form of mortals would be espoused through the story as was contrasted with magical power as well as the mystery of punishing disobedience with change from human form to the form of a spider as was the case with the ‘spider girl’. External conflict is very evident as father Gonzaga tries tirelessly to restrain people from converging at Pelayo’s home to view the claimed angle before the higher church authority would pass the verdict of confirming or not that the man was indeed an angle. People would therefore leave and when the spider girl arrives within the city, more attention by the people would be shifted to her because she proves to be more friendly and humane than Pelayo’s old man. There is therefore the conflict of interest and the girl becomes more famous than the old man at Pelayo’s home. The theme of spirituality and religion is much pronounced within the story with Pelayo’s neighbor having the position that the old man must have been an angel who came for Pelayo’s child while the father and the higher authority in the church refuted the claim and had the position that the mysterious old man must have been a fake angel. Predominance of the mystery behind the nature of the man however remains when after the winter, the man grows more feathers and one day flies away as Pelayo’s wife watch although to her relief because she had already grown tired of the mysterious visitor (GradeSaver LLC., para 1-4). Charlotte Perkins wrote the short story on yellow wall paper expounding on the theme of family and the position of women in the society as was depicted at the time. From the story, one major lesson dominates; that human beings, just as is the case

History paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

History paper - Essay Example The Old Town is the location of Albuquerque’s historical buildings. The cities and people of each of these cities have taken the time to preserve their cultural history. Whether changing plans, or moving neighborhoods the historical sites have been protected for the future. All three of the cities mentioned, Albuquerque, Seattle, and Denver, were booming towns that grew into cities. After World War II people left the country for the suburbs. The Southwest was no exception. As the population grew, the cities expanded and rebuilt to accommodate the larger numbers of people. As a result committees formed to protect historical buildings and sites from change or outright demolition. From these protected areas one example will be examined from each city. The Plaza in Old Town will represent the example from Albuquerque. Seattle will be represented by Pioneer Square. Denver’s Union Station will be looked at too. Albuquerque’s Old Town Plaza is really a tourist’s dream of what Albuquerque should look like. Morely explains that Old Town Plaza is what tourists want to see (23). After World War II, Albuquerque decided to make Old Town part of the current Albuquerque. The need to keep it Native was imperative. Adobe structures and stucco were predominating under the new plan. Ordinances were created to prevent modern buildings from looking modern. The reason for the ordinance was to keep Old Town historic. Although modern techniques were applied, the appearance of history was promoted. In order to protect not just Old Town, but all of Albuquerque, rules and regulations were created. These rules were to create the atmosphere of a Latino influenced town. The dominate building on the Old Town Plaza is the San Felipe de Neri Church. This is the oldest building left in Albuquerque. San Felipe de Neri Church was the focal point of Old Town’s community since it was built (Morley 25). The Church has been the true symbol of the

The Intel Pentium Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Intel Pentium Issue - Essay Example However, the microprocessor's flow in calculating long divisions causes minor errors not usually noticeable to most computer users. For example, the accurate answer for a division equation should be 2.345678, but P5 will come up with the answer of 2.345699. (1) The error is very minor, come to think of it, and Intel testers have realized and reported this problem to the Intel managers even before the microprocessor was released in the market that year. However, there was no significant reaction from the Intel managers to resolve the issue because â€Å"no one would really notice the slight error.† Months after, math professor Thomas Nicely of Lynchburg College noticed an error during the calculation of â€Å"reciprocals of a large collection of prime numbers on his Pentium-based computer.† (2) The professor wrote to Intel but did not receive any response from them, which prompted him to post on the internet about the issue. It then became a global issue against the corp oration. Obviously, bylaws seven and nine of the IEEE code of ethics were broken in various ways. Bylaw nine states that every member of a corporation must, in all cases â€Å"avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action.† (3) Intel failed to act along this bylaw by deciding to release the flawed chip in the market despite previously knowing of its problem. Furthermore, Intel's decision to replace processors would have resolved a big chunk of the problem had they not insisted the customers to prove their eligibility for that. Intel should have taken into consideration that several of the Pentium-based computer users invested their hard-earned dollars for the device. It is very true that Intel would not intentionally desire harming the customers by the defective chip, however, even minor errors could affect the customers in several ways. For example, those who deal with numbers on a regular basis like brokers, economists, or eve n bankers would require accuracy in every number calculation that they do. Even professors like Thomas Nicely and drug companies who tests new drugs could be adversely affected by what Intel deemed as â€Å"slight error.† Additionally, bylaw seven states that every member of corporations must exhaust all means to â€Å"seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contribution of others.† (3) When Intel testers informed the managers of the problem, the response did not go along what is stated in bylaw seven. They refused to admit making the mistake because it would definitely cause their company to lose millions of dollars. It was a total act of dishonesty to hope that the users of the newly released chip would not notice the flaw. It appears as if the managers decided to disregard the issue until problems become obvious. Doing this placed several users of the Pentium-based computers at the ris k of putting their crucial work at the hands of a flawed device covered-up by dishonesty. Had Intel decided to act under the guideline provided by bylaw ten, the global issue against the company would not have happened. Bylaw ten states that â€Å"

Roles you play Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Roles you play - Essay Example The first task consisted in eliciting support from the members of the community through their becoming members of this group. A few of us, including myself, were given the task of persuading as many community members as possible to become members, and involve themselves in the activities of planning, implementing, and monitoring of the community development activities. Thus, my first group task was that of INITIATOR-CONTRIBUTOR. This role was assumed by me, because of the motivation and energy that I had for the objectives of the group, and my ability for persuasive communication. This role was effective in drawing many members to the group. It was not long before a majority of the members of the community had become members of the group, and the forming phase was over. We next had to get down to the storming phase or the phase in which the agenda of group activities would be decided. At this stage my role in the group changed to that of an ELABORATOR. This role was assumed by me as I had the capacity to listen and understand the opinions of the members of the group, and put it to the group clearly, for better understanding in the group. This role was effective in ensuring that every member had a proper voice in the setting of the agenda for the group activities. Having sorted out the agenda, we next moved on to assigning tasks and roles for the members of the group. This was the most disruptive phase encountered thus far. In this phase I played the role of a GATEKEEPER-EXPEDITER. Every member needed to know the opinions of others, and also have a say in the assigning of roles and tasks, for an amicable way in going about the assigning and acceptance of roles and tasks. I assumed this role because of my listening and communication skills, persuasive nature, and high energy levels. This role of mine ensured that communication between members was maintained during the disharmonious periods, so that tasks and roles

Cultural studies project on Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural studies project on Media - Essay Example "The King of Queens" is an Emmy nominated series that ran from 1998 to 2007. It showcases the life of blue-collar couple Doug and Carrie Heffman, as they struggle with work and other issues. "Ugly Betty" is particularly interesting because it represents the stereotypical migrant Mexican family, struggling to make ends meet in America. Betty was born of and lives with her poor but upright family, which comprises of her father, her older sister and her young, gay nephew. They are not the typical working class family for a variety of reasons. While in most cases, working class families are portrayed as scrupulous and scheming, Betty's family, most especially her father (whose values Betty tries to take after) are the paragons of morality in the show. Setting them against the high-paced, cruel fashion world where Betty works, they end up solving most of their problems and the problems of those around them, often without compromising their values. Also, Betty's family stays intact and loving amidst all of the drama. Usually, when a working class family is the subject of a television show, internal conflicts and uber-dramatic exits and falling outs within the family is the main drive of the story.

Chapter review with news article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter review with news article - Essay Example approaches that are included a wide range of activities that are undertaken in the bid to obtain the best results from a group of people or employees of an organisation or firm. The system is a continuous concept that involves developing the employee’s goals as well as objectives, supervising the procedures concurrently with the goal that need to be achieved, analysing the outcomes and finally noting their performance. The whole of the process involves the technique of receiving and giving out feedback information. Performance management systems are usually carried so as to address various key issues; the first concept covered by performance management systems is the strategy. The strategy is important in the determination of the relationship between the various individual output in relation to the strategic objectives. Performance management systems are also responsible for the evaluation processes that are essential in the analysis of the objectives that have been obtained. Additionally, development is also a key factor that can be determined through performance management systems. Finally, diagnosis is also an aspect that can be evaluated through performance management system. Performance debates or discussion are the means by which the managers are able to come up with personalised work objectives together with their employees. This is the opportunity that the managers are able to talk about the measures that need to be undertaken in support of development of the work performance. On the contrary, the types of discussions that are held are always dependent on the various stages of the management cycle whilst the principles are always constant. It is preferable that there be at least one meeting session of discussing the performance schedule and at least two meetings for the discussion of the objectives that have been achieved. On the other hand, instances of informal meeting always create the opportunities to have discussions that are related to the

A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies Essay Example for Free

A Comparison of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Societies Essay Although Egypt and Mesopotamia were both early agricultural societies built upon the water provided by the major rivers which sustained them, they exhibited important differences as a consequence of the different physical environments in which they developed. In this paper I will first focus on what I consider to be the major aspects of these differences in environment and then explore the consequences of these differences in their religious beliefs, political organization and commercial practices. A major difference in physical environment between these ancient societies was the seasonal river flows on which they depended for farming. The Nile which supported early Egyptian civilization was characterized by predictable and annual flooding in the early fall. These floods occurred after crops were harvested. This pattern was a consequence of the regular late summer monsoon rains which fell at its headwaters. The Nile also possessed a large spreading delta area that gave rise to natural irrigation canals that would flood the areas between them with fertile nutrients for the next planting year. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers which supported the Mesopotamian society would typically flood in the late spring just when crops would be ripening, often with disastrous results on harvests. This pattern was a result of these waters originating from winter snow melt in the Anatolian mountains (now in present day Turkey) where these rivers originated. These floods sometimes caused the rivers to change their course abruptly cutting off fields from water. Another primary physical difference contributing to cultural differences was the relative isolation in which ancient Egypt developed compared to Mesopotamia. According to our text book ‘Egypt’s natural isolation and material self-sufficiency fostered a unique culture that for long periods of time had relatively little to do with other civilizations’. In contrast, Mesopotamia was open to migration or invasion and was dependent on imported resources. Also many different ethnic peoples contributed to the growth of Mesopotamian society. The religious beliefs of Egypt and Mesopotamia were influenced by many factors. The rivers, every day objects, and the beliefs of the people. In Egypt in contrast to Mesopotamia the Pharaoh was considered to be a god in addition to being the supreme ruler. He was the main god of their religion. In Egypt people praised their gods for the annual flooding of the Nile. However in Mesopotamia the people were frightened of their gods because ‘the gods could alter the landscape’ arbitrarily. In return they gave their gods gifts in hopes of appeasing them. In both of the civilizations religion was polytheistic, i. e. , having many gods. The political organization of Egypt was based on the central authority of the Pharaoh. Since he was the embodied form of a god, he was the law. He chose where the capitol would be located, such a Thebes, Memphis, etc. Although smaller cities existed in ancient Egypt the majority of Egyptians appeared to live in small farming villages. In contrast, Mesopotamia was built around a number of independent city states surrounded by farming villages. Many of these cities competed with each other or even warred with each other to become a dominant center of power. No uniform basis for law or justice existed in this decentralized environment until Hammurabi succeeded in becoming the first king of Babylon and established the Babylonian Empire with control over all of Mesopotamia. He created a law code of which may copies were made. These inscribed tablets were sent to the different clans of Mesopotamia and became a basis for a uniform legal system, including classification of the people living under his dominion The commercial activities in Mesopotamia were quite extensive as a result of the requirement to develop trading relationships between the different city states and other regions to obtain needed resources. This resulted in the development of a merchant class in the urban centers unlike the situation in Egypt. Trade was based on bartering rather than money. Goods traded included wood, metals, and stone in exchange for wool, cloth, barley, and vegetable oil. These practices required the development of the skills needed for acquiring, transporting, and protecting valuable commodities. According to our textbook, independent merchants and merchant guilds had gained considerable influence in Mesopotamian society by the second 2000 BC.

Analysing The Novel Elegy For My Father English Literature Essay

Analysing The Novel Elegy For My Father English Literature Essay Elegy for my Father is a melancholy piece of poetry which uses descriptive imagery in order to describe a fathers last hours. The original definition of an elegy was a dedication to a persons life, either in mourning or sorrow. This example is written in six separate eight line stanzas, each flowing from the next. The poem could also be described as a form of lyric poetry because of the deep thoughts and feelings expressed in it, and the story it is telling. The sombre metre of the poem uses dactylic tetrameter, which creates a kind of rapid effect, and also with the unrhymed lines creating a less flowing rhythm, with a more jagged like tone throughout the poem. The variations of the chosen dactylic meter illustrated in the first stanza, range from the trochee in lines 1 and 7, the cretic in the first foot of line 2, the bacchic in the third foot of line 2 and the running start or extra syllable beginning in the first foot of line 4. The different mix of the poetic forms shows how the author, Annie Finch, illustrates freedom and expression in her writing. In his review of Annie Finchs poetry, Michael Parker states, Finch is simply a master of meter, displaying a distinct, complex yet highly readable metrical system, most unique for contemporary poets. The main subject, the father, has little of his life left to live and Finch wants the reader, to journey through this particular time in great detail. The images of vigil evoked in this poe m allow the reader to develop a feel of the pagan ritual of mourning the death of a loved one. The spiritual views which Finch follows so boldly and weaves into her works beautifully are very vivid in the imagery used in Elegy for my Father. Ted Richards wrote in Jacket Magazine that Finch, who has described her work process as including the whispering or muttering, shouting or chanting or singing her words aloud as she writes, has brought that song into the words in a way that we associate with poets of an earlier era, like Tennyson or Kipling. Throughout the poem, the repetitive use of you and he for the father is significant because it creates that close personal feeling of a father and his daughter, and how death can change it all. It also creates empathy in the reader towards the subject. In the later part with lines like Night, take his hand and He has given his body we can feel the distance which is created by death. This creates that feeling of transition and distance which one goes through in the ritual of mourning the death of a loved one. In the transition from you to he Finch has created that feeling of departure just like creating the most moving moments in an elegyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. when a poet juxtaposes the mourners address to the dead person with a sympathetic but sceptical testing of that convention: If the dead are forever deaf and inert, how can they hear what we say? (Shaw, 1994) The two epigraphs presented in quote form at the beginning of the poem act as a preface to the subject of the poem: death as part of the natural circle of life. No earthly shore until is answered in the vortex of our grave. The word grave mentioned early on in the poem reveals ideas about death and earthly shore about the earth bound physical part of our life before we move on to the spiritual life beyond. In the next line, the seals wide spindrift gaze towards paradise, the seal and paradise emphasise that once dead in the physical sense, you are passed on to paradise. Similarly with the lion in the second epigraph, it is as if we the readers are to believe that humans can be compared to an animal as large and triumphant as a lion or a seal perhaps. The reason for the epigraphs at the beginning of the poem is to create a strong indication of the poems theme that is to follow. Finch uses two quotes from a poet (Crane) and a philosopher (Wittgenstein, in whose work her father was a pa rticular expert) to inform her poems content. In comparison, T.S. Eliots poem Gerontion uses an epigraph taken from Shakespeares Measure for Measure: Thou has nor youth nor age/ But as it were an after dinner sleep/ dreaming of both. A popular choice among literary writers, the epigraph sets the scene for what is to follow and enables the reader to form their own ideas about the theme chosen. In the deep room where candles burn soundlessly and peace pours at last through the cells of our bodies. Lines 1 and 2 of the second stanza echo line 1 of the first. The repetition of both adverbs soundlessly and wordlessly is an example of where Finch has attempted to use rhyme but in a completely different way. The family of the dying father is watchful by his side, Three of us are watching, one of us is staring. It is almost as if they know what is going to happen, but they want to stay in the moment forever and not see him die. With the wide gaze of a wild, wave-fed seal. Incense and sage speak in smoke loud as waves. The descriptive imagery Finch uses, particularly the alliterative w sound in line 12 and the sibilant s sound in line 13 in the second stanza shows that she is using sound to illustrate how she is feeling. The repetition of these consonants and the use of the nature theme help to create an image of happiness, and not sadness. Crickets sing sand towards the edge of t he hourglass. The hourglass signifies an end point in time, but if crickets are singing then there could be an element of joy too. It is the difference between our imaginations and reality that the focus of this poem is illustrating. It is showing the balance of light and dark and death alongside life. Overall, the description of the room and the imagery used suggest aspects of Pagan ritual the references to incense, candles and circles and to animals. There are roughly three sections of this poem; the first being the descriptive tribute to a father most loved, the second being the father losing grip on his life, with his family close by, we will stay with you, keeping the silence we all came here for, and the last involving the moment in which he dies, Silence is here. In the fifth stanza, lines 34, 35 and 36 all begin with the word spin. This is the first noticeable pattern of words chosen by Finch. The effect of repeating each line with the same word affects the outlook on the situation. It is as if the death which is happening is such a blur that it spins impatiently, waiting for an outcome. Lines 38 and 29 of the same stanza also begin with the repeated word flying. The similarity between spin and flying, both of which suggest adventurous actions demonstrate that at this point, that the father is nearing a dignified death, His breath slows, lending its edges out to the night. Ending with the last stanza, where the father dies, it is important to point out that with the authors pagan religious beliefs, the theme throughout has been that death is much more than just death alone. It is likened to nature, and the soul; He has given his body; his hand lies above the sheets in a symbol of wholeness. This powerful imagery and religious (albeit Pagan) input infuses a feeling of warmth and strength for the ending of the poem. We the readers are left to our own imaginations, words such as gold, flame, temple, and prayer paint the scene of the mourning and passage of a person into the realm of death with ritualistic and religious sanctity. Edain McCoy has said that, when one defines oneself as Pagan, it means she or he follows an earth or nature religion, one that sees the divine manifest in all creation. The cycles of nature are our holy days, the earth is our temple. Annie Finch in Elegy for my Father creates a personal outlook on her fathers death framed by her own Pagan beliefs. 1,492 words Endnote 1. The writer of the poem was identified by typing the first two lines of the first stanza into Googles search bar, and following the first link to: http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/annie_finch/poems/22499

The Personal Research Project Animation Essay

The Personal Research Project Animation Essay This research document was undertaken to discover and analyse character acting in animation, and the different methods used to express emotion and thought process. The document is focused around how an audience is influenced by techniques of character acting, and what elements contribute to its believability. Research of various literature, articles and online sources have been ventured to aid the analysis and conclusion. The evidence researched, suggests that thought process must occur before an action takes place by the character. Developing a character with empathy through their emotions helps the audience relate to them, contributing to a richer, more believable outcome. Various techniques are used to express thought process and emotion, however, discovery has led to the understanding that body language can be just as expressive without dialogue. Internal thought process is best expressed through a characters eye movements in conjunction with body language. Introduction The aim of this research document is to gain a deeper knowledge and understanding of how acting methods in character animation can be utilised and articulated to express emotions through the display of internal thought processes in a character. This research will explore the methods used by animators to create the illusion of life and discover how it can become believable and engaging for the audience. Acting is defined as the art of practise of representing a character on a stage or before cameras and derives from the Latin word agere, meaning to do an obsolete meaning for the word acting is animate. (John Kundert-Gibbs, 2009, p4) Research will be applied to specific methods of real/stage acting to develop an understanding of acting in character animation. Background to the Research Animate verb /annimayt/ 1. bring to life or activity. 2 give (a film or character) the appearance of movement using animation. adjective /annimt/ alive; having life. Derives, animator noun. Origin, Latin animare, from anima life, soul. (Oxford English Dictionary) Animation has been thought to have originated over 35,000 years ago, after the discovery of ancient wall paintings in places like Altamira and Lascaux; which depicted various types of humans, objects and animals as Richard Williams (2001, p13) explains, sometimes with four pairs of legs to show motion. In the early 1800s, Williams shows (2001, p14-15) that there were various different devices developed for the sole purpose of creating an illusion of movement such as the Thaumatrope, the Phenakistoscope, the Zoetrope, the Paxinoscope and the Flipper book. All these devices were based on the rediscovery, in 1824, of The persistence of vision by Peter Mark Roget. The principle of this rests, on the fact that our eyes temporarily retain the image of anything theyve just seen. (Williams, 2001, p13) In 1896, this sparked the interest of Thomas Edison, who ended up publicly releasing a combination of drawings, drawn by James Stuart Blackton, in sequence called Humorous Phases of Funny Faces. Since then, we have seen many different approaches to the genre of animation. With the rise of Disney animation studios, in 1928, Steamboat Willie was introduced with synchronised sound and a new character, Mickey Mouse. By 1936, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released which received amazing success. This was the starting point of the Golden Age of animation which was shortly followed by the popular Disney titles: Pinocchio, Dumbo, Bambi and Fantasia. It wasnt until November, 1995 that Toy Story, the first full-length computer animated film was released by Pixar Animation Studios. This sparked another new era of animation. Studios like Dreamworks and Blue Sky soon followed. Acting in animation has been adopted as the key element for creating believability in an animated sequence, But to make these designs work, the movements have to be believable which leads back to realism What we want to achieve isnt realism, its believability. (Williams, 2001, p.34) All animated acting is designed to give a character personality and believability. Just like in stage acting. Doron Meir (2008) explains that believable acting is a result of the audience feeling a characters actions of its own inner motives. Williams (2001) notes that animation principles that were developed by Disney Studios very early on, are still being used today in all types of animation to bring characters to life. Research Question How are emotions and internal thought processes expressed through techniques of acting in character animation to make characters believable and engaging to the audience? Survey of Literature Works Acting is a very broad subject, and can be applied to many different genres of acting for stage and camera. Animation has had a direct influence by the techniques and discoveries on how to portray a character through movement. This is why To the Actor: On the Technique of Acting by Michael Chekhov is an ideal choice that links directly to acting. Chekhov is famously known for his in-depth acting methods, and has stood as an iconic teacher for famous actors of today. Chekhov reflects on the methods used to call up emotions, develop characters and strengthen awareness as an actor. All these things help to develop specific Psychological Gestures that he explains within the book, that show the audience what the character is trying to express through body language, which is also the key to a characters believability in an animated sequence. To get a more specific understanding of how characters move, and the principles surrounding character animation as an art, The Animators Survival Guide by Richard Williams is an in-depth manual on the style and techniques of hand-drawn animation. Containing the specific principles used by animators to achieve believable movement. Williams has been one of the true innovators, and serves as a link between the golden age of animation by hand and new computer animation successes. (Williams, 2001, blurb) Everything in this book relates to the overall aim of producing a character that moves in a believable way. Acting relies on these techniques that are shown through drawing methods of frame by frame animation. By adopting these techniques, animators can be taught to study the anatomy of the human body to further understand how to produce successful animated characters. The analysis of how characters display emotion needs to be taken into account throughout this research. Acting for Animators by Ed Hooks explains the tried and tested methods in acting that reflect personality and feeling within a character. This book takes us through Hooks lessons on acting and the theoretical approach behind his techniques. Empathy occurs a lot in this book, answering the need to create characters with feeling, for the audience to empathise with. Analysis into character movement and acting by example will allow the discovery of techniques used in popular film. Acting in Animation: A Look at 12 Films is a second book by Ed Hooks, where he analyses twelve different animated films, going through chapter by chapter, describing the expressive and emotive methods used in each scene. Led by these film examples, the techniques discovered through research, can be firmly reinforced. Theoretical Approach for Selecting Data Data will be collected, analysed and displayed from a variety of published secondary sources including: books, articles, web articles, web blogs and conferences. All data and necessary information will be collected for the purpose of research, but will not all be related to the analysis of animation. Acting technique and method will be the main subject source of research, which will provide a broader context to base opinions, ideas and thoughts discovered in secondary literature sources by other people in the industry. Literature sources containing examples of proven practise will be used to further enforce the topic of research. Description of Proposed Practise By an extended discovery and analysis on the subject of character acting in animation, I plan to produce at least six interesting and achievable artefacts that reflect the knowledge gained through this research document, that will provide further understanding about how emotion can allow an audience to empathise with an animated character. The preliminary design practise will include the development of key character poses to emphasise specific emotions directly influenced by an internal thought process. This will then indicate how a character can be developed further into a collection of believable animation sequences. Each artefact plans to contain one of the six basic emotions, as stated by Ed Hooks, happiness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust and sadness (2000, p.36) Characters used will be designed and rigged by a secondary source, which will provide a simple, easy to use marionette for the purpose of animation. Dialogue will not be used, as this may stand as a distraction from the emotions that are aimed to be expressed through body language and facial expressions. These artefacts will provide a clearer understanding of subconscious body movements that are often overlooked. Discussion Character animation can take many forms within the context of animation in both the traditional sense as well as in modern computer animation. The following principles were developed and named: 1. Squash and Stretch 2. Timing and Motion 3. Anticipation 4. Staging 5. Follow Through and Overlapping 6. Straight Ahead Action and Pose-to-Pose 7. Slow In and Out 8. Arcs 9. Exaggeration 10. Secondary Action 11. AppealPersonality in character animation is the goal of all of the above. (John Lasseter, 1987, pp. 35-44, 21:4) Lasseter explains that these specific traditional animation principles and techniques developed in the 1930s by Walt Disney Studios should be incorporated into all animated media especially character animation to develop characters look to make them more realistic and entertaining (Lasseter, 1987, pp. 35-44) Richard Williams explains, The old knowledge applies to any style of approach to the medium no matter what the advances in technology. (2001, p. 20) This shows that successful, believable animation of all types have spawned on the basis and influence of these traditional principles and techniques. Richard Williams also tells us that, in relation to classical and computer animation, Both share the same problems of how to give a performance with movement, weight, timing and empathy. (2001, p. 20) This underlines a key point into the advances of technology in animation, showing that 3D animation software packages only act as a technique of animating and not an easier way to influence believable movement. Lasseter explains, To make a characters personality seem real to an audience, he must be different than the other characters on the screen. A simple way to distinguish the personalities of your characters is through contrast of movement. No two characters would do the same action in the same way. (1994) Creating a unique character, develops its personality. John Kricfalusi (2006) reminisced of how he got drawn in by Chuck Jones cartoons, noticing the unique expressions he drew. Specifically as an example, the way he draws two whites of the eyes joined together, one bigger than the other to form a D-uh expression. We can see that individuality is very important when introducing personality to a character, Chekhov (1953, p.83) explains on the subject of characterisation, that particular features indigenous to a character; like a typical movement, manner of speech, recurrent habit, odd way of walking and so on, expresses the finishing touches to a character. Characters become more alive and more human with this small feature. Hooks (2000, p.36) explains, When we speak of creating the illusion of life in animation, it boils down not to mannerisms and naturalistic movement, but to emotion. Hooks continues to state that theoretically speaking, emotion is the essential element of acting as the point of empathy for the audience. Hooks, Empathy is as essential to dynamic acting as oxygen is to water. (2000, p.9) Characters of all descriptions, in an attempt to make them believable to an audience, need to have a particular personality. The audience needs to be directly affected by a characters on-screen emotion, to really feel a sense of empathy. Without, the audience will lose interest easily and the objectives within the storyline can diminish. Hooks (2000, p.41), reflects on Charlie Chaplin as one of the most influential comedians that used a great deal of empathy in his work to touch the audiences emotions. He explains that his innovation as a performer has had a huge influence on the world of comics and animation. As Chuck Jones has said I admire Chaplin very much because you could see him think, and plan, and you cared for him. (Hooks, 2000, p.40) Chaplins unique relationship with the audience has seen a great influence on character animation from the beginning of Walt Disneys profession. Dick Huemer (Hooks, 2000, p.40), Disney storyman, tells us Walt had an image of Mickey Mouse as a little Chaplin. In order to successfully accomplish empathy within a character, there needs to be elements of individuality to provoke emotions. These can be developed through simple recurring mannerisms that correlate with the characters thoughts and actions. In every respect, the audience needs to be the main influence when deciding a characters actions. Hooks states humans express six basic emotions, happiness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust and sadness (2000, p.36) He also tells us that there is disagreement on whether facial expression is primarily a reflection of the inner emotional state, or if it is simply a social display. Hooks concludes that it could be either, depending on the situation. Emotion can be expressed through both facial expression and body language, although the influence of each method can be different. Williams (2001, p. 324) believes that words should be kept to a bare minimum and as an animator, make everything as clear as possible through pantomime using only the body to tell the story. The movements of the body are thought about a lot more by animators than real actors, as animators have to create it rather than do it, although the physical expressive nature of emotions are identical. Different types of feelings can be expressed easily as Chekhov shows, grasping or catching (greed, avarice, cupidity, miserliness) roughly with palms turned earthward lusts to overpower, to possess. (1953, p.67) Equally, Chekhov (1953, p.73) explains here that in order to build up your characters expressive nature, hands and arms should act first for example; hands up near the chin expresses unavoidability and loneliness, palms turned outward displays self-defence and slight humour is evoked when bending the three middle fingers of each hand. Hooks agrees, The truth is that our hands and arms are the most expressive parts of our bodies. (2000, p.60) An example to this, Hooks demonstrates, Arms folded across the chest indicate that the person is closed, intractable When you are embarrassed, you tend to shrink in space. (2000, p.62) This reveals that many body language patterns in human figures are emphasised through the movement of hands and arms. Williams (2001, p. 324) explains a method called Twinning where arms and hands are doing the same thing, symmetrically. He teaches that this is used to show authority by preachers, leaders, politicians and so forth. Kevan Shorey agrees that, Symmetry is a good way of adding force to an action to get a point across! (2008) Both animators, believe that twinning should be broken up to avoid an exact mirror image of movements that would produce unbelievable messages to the audience. Jeff Lew (2004) explains that to make twinning animation look more interesting, the perspective of shot needs to be changed so they dont physically look identical at a particular camera angle. Walt Disney in 1930s found that expression is better when the whole body is involved and not only the face, Movement begins in the area of your navel and radiates outwards into your limbs. (Hooks, 2000, p.60) John Kricfalusi (2006) explains that animators have evolved a style that has become more stagy than live action by reading characters emotions through body language and poses. Evidentially, facial expressions arent enough to provoke a meaningful emotion, and that the whole body needs to be articulating through hand gestures and arm movements to compliment facial expressions, to achieve a believable emotion through a character. In an example from Toy Story 2, Hooks notes, She (Jessie) doesnt simply greet Woody enthusiastically, she turns him over and gives him nuggies! She tosses him this way and that. Her emotion is leading her to energetically celebrate. (2005, p.90) This is a specific example of how body language is reflecting emotion successfully. If this same bit of acting was acted on the stage, or in front of a camera with real actors it would have a very different outcome. The emotion may be similar, but another way of emphasising actions used in animation is through exaggeration. Shawn Kelly (2009) informs us that he was taught to exaggerate something more than it should be, then double it. Exaggeration is one of the original animation principles. Lasseter (1987, pp. 35-44, 21:4) suggests exaggeration of characters by the animator must be very carefully chosen. If there is too much distortion it could result in an unrealistic look. Looking back much earlier, to 1927, the classic film Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans was released. Without synchronised dialogue, films of this era had to rely on the characters acting and the backing compositions as the two main elements for the story. Sunrise is considered one of the finest films of the silent era, and Janets Gaynors performance is one its greatest virtues Her supple face and soulful eyes convey a range of thoughts and emotions that pages of dialogue could only suggest. (DeFreitas, 2009) Later, DeFreitas (2009) tells us that Sunrise became a winner of the 1929 Best Picture Oscar for Unique and Artistic Production. This film sets as an evidential example of how acting without dialogue can influence and empathise with an audience just as good, if not more so. Often in animation, Lasseter (1987, pp. 35-44) explains that the eye can easily pick up when the motion of a character seems to die, which can come across as looking particularly fake and unbelievable. To overcome this loss of motion, Lasseter uses a moving hold which is a technique used that continues the motion of a body part after an action. This breaks up the animation and results in a smoother and more believable sequence. Preston Blair (Hooks, 2001, p.60), states that an actor should never pause without a specific reason, and when a pause occurs, it should be shown for long enough so the audience can register it. These are both techniques that engage the audience into what the character is acting out. Before a movement of any sort can occur, thought processes need to become apparent through the character. Hooks outlines, Thinking tends to lead to conclusions; emotion tends to lead to action. (2000, p.1) Hooks defines a thought process as a method in discovering a conclusion. Lasseter (1994) mentions that every movement of a particular character must exist for a reason, and, ultimately, develop feelings in a character through their thought processes. As an observation, before a human being puts his body into action, a thought process must occur. In animation, this thought process must be shown to the audience to illustrate believability of an action that has just been revealed. To show a thought process in a character, Disney animator/teacher Eric Larson shows a technique, in Frank Thomas and Ollie Johnsons Illusion of Life, The subject gradually lowered his brows into a frown paused and then lifted one brow and glanced to the side, you immediately would sense a change from one thought to another (Richard Williams, 2001, p.320) This action was discovered when the first Mickey Mouse shorts were being created, and stands as a key element into how change of expression can reflect a meaningful thought process. Shawn Kelly (2009) expresses his ideas, explaining that there isnt anything more important than showing a characters thought process and changes which occur within it to provoke emotions and actions. It is down to these thought processes, he concludes, that drives everything we do. Looking at character animation in Toy Story 2, Hooks (2005, p.87) explains how Woodys realisation that Andy has gone to camp without him, leads him to his express sadness (emotion) which then leads him to withdraw to the back shelf, out of sight. He adds that, The more specific the characters thought process, the better the performance. (2005, p.87) Thought process in character animation, as mentioned, is very important for believability. This has been true for many years since the beginning of Disneys Golden Age in animation. Walt Disney said, In most instances, the driving force behind the action is the mood, the personality, the attitude of the character-or all three. Therefore, the mind is the pilot. We think of things before the body does them. (Lasseter, 1987, pp. 35-44, 21:4) It is widely agreed that thought process is the main building block that needs to be perfected and shown successfully in any animated character. Bill Tytla (Hooks, 2005, p.3), concluded that the pose is a reaction to something. Hooks refers to Aristotle, Aristotle referred to this as a unity of action small actions that lead to a bigger action, or objective. This simple rule lies at the base of all acting theory. An action without a thought is impossible, and action without an objective is just a mechanical thing, moving body parts. (Hooks, 2005, p.4-5) Aristotle finds that the thought process of a character separates a character with life to a robotic, lifeless machine. As mentioned earlier, Eric Larsons technique of showing a thought process in a character is very believable. But more specifically, it has been discovered that the eyes are the most important parts of the character to express and emphasis these thoughts. Williams (2001, p.325) advises on how the eyes are the focal point that people watch in a character. As an example, he notes, When listening on the phone the eyes flicker around in a Staccato fashion reflecting the listeners shifting thoughts in reaction our eyes are rarely still. (2001, p.326) The eyes, the driving force behind a characters actions. Kelly agrees that decisions can be reflected successfully with the eyes, They will very often dart their eyes around a bit as they consider and weigh their options. Its almost as if they are reading an imaginary list of possible choices! (2009) Lasseter (1987), explains that eyes lead before the action, and that the only time they wouldnt lead, would be if there was an external force acting upon the character. He mentions further, that the trick to showing thought process through the eyes of a character is with anticipation. The eyes should move first, followed by the head and then the rest of the body. The eyes of a character are the windows to its thoughts; the characters thoughts are conveyed through the actions of its eyes. (Lasseter, 1987) As well as eye movements, the timing and speed of a characters blinks can also affect the outcome of what is portrayed as a thought process. Kelly (2009), explains that different blinks can offer up our own different perceptions of what the character is thinking. A ton of blinks will feel as though the character is going to cry, is nervous, uncomfortable, shy, or possibly relieved after a big build up; while very little to no blinking will either feel dead, stoned worried, angry, or just very intense. (Kelly, 2009) Kelly teaches that blinks should be there for a reason to further enhance a particular emotion. Before an animator can even start to animate a particular thought process, they need to know about the character to be able to understand what they would be feeling at a certain moment, in an attempt to achieve a believable outcome. The most important foundation of believable character acting starts with finding out about a specific character. Williams states, Got to get inside the character. What does he/she/it want? and even more interesting why does the character want it? (2001, p.20) To develop our understanding of what a character is thinking, and in order to provoke emotion in a character, these questions need to be posed. Ed Hooks also explains to us that, Every character in a scene should be able to answer the question. What am I doing? in a theatrical sense. In other words, what action am I playing in pursuit of what objective? And what is the obstacle/conflict? (2005, p.89) Just like this, in the context of acting for an audience, Michael Chekhov suggests to, Ask yourself what the main desires of the character might be (1953, p.67) This approach sets the scene for any character in order to discover what the characters personality is trying to portray in what they are thinking or doing. Hooks notes, If you want to understand what a character is feeling, it is best to start by asking what the character is thinking and what his value system is. (2000, p.2) To understand how a character must move, the animator needs to discover the atmosphere and influence of the obstacle that the character is being confronted with. Only then can a thought process occur, and a feeling be evoked by a specific situation or conflict. Jeff Lew (2004) , expresses his thoughts on the development of a characters bio before learning how a character will react in any animated scene. This develops further understanding of a characters background that could be significant in influencing the way their emotions are expressed. This evidence shows us that there are a lot of elements contributing to developing a characters emotional state and to make it believable to the audience. To develop his understanding of a character and what they are thinking, Ed Hooks uses a definition coined by Michael Chekhov called a Psychological Gesture, which, Chekhov explains as the psychology of a character containing thoughts, feelings and a human free will which is expressed physically through external feelings, thoughts and desires. Hooks gives the example, Have you ever noticed someone who wrings his hands a lot while hes talking? A Bully punches someone in the chest with his finger. That is a psychological gesture. (2000, p.66) A psychological gesture is an internal thought process, manifesting itself into an external action to express an emotion. Chekhov gives an acting example, The qualities which fill and permeate each muscle of the entire body, will provoke within you feelings of hatred and disgust. (1953, p.64) The above, is very similar to the way animators approach the discovery of a characters psychological gesture by calling up ideas of how thoughts can influence the emotions that are displayed. Conclusion Character animation, in both the traditional and computer medium, rely heavily on the original animation principles that were discovered by Disney Studios. This emphasises how improvements in 3D animated software are used as only as a tool for the creation of animation, and does not rely on the computer to make things look believable by itself. Analysis has shown that acting techniques in animation are almost identical to stage and film acting. It is the exaggeration of body language and the ability to adapt a character in specific detail that sets it apart. It is evident that the emotional state of a character is a direct influence of its thought process. Thought process can be best expressed through body language to enhance an emotion. This research has lead to discover that eye movements are one of the focal points that enhance a characters thought. Emotions need to be manifested into an external, physical body movement, however slight, in order to engage an audience. The conclusion to the discussion has shown that creating empathy as a result of expressing an emotion, is the key element for engaging any audience. A characters believability is successful when an audience can relate to it in some way or another. This can be done by giving a character a personality through mannerisms and specific body language. Bibliography and List of Works CHEKHOV, M., CALLOW, S To The Actor: on the technique of acting, Oxon: Routledge, 2002 DEFREITAS, J MOVING PICTURES: Motion and Emotion in F.W. Murnaus Sunrise, 2009, http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2009-0212/article/32219?headline=MOVING-PICTURES-Motion-and-Emotion-in-F.W.-Murnaus-Sunrise- HOOKS, E., BIRD, B Acting for Animators, Portsmouth: Heinemann 2000 HOOKS, E Acting in Animation: A Look at 12 Films, Portsmouth: Heinemann 2005 KUNDERT- GIBBS, J, Action! Lessons for CG Animators, Oxford: John Wiley Sons, 2009 KRICFALUSI, J Personal Blog, 2006, http://johnkstuff.blogspot.com KELLY, S Animation Mentor Blog, 2009, http://www.animationtipsandtricks.com LASSETER, J Principles of Traditional Animation Applied to 3D Computer Animation, Siggraph, 1987, http://www.siggraph.org/education/materials/HyperGraph/animation/character_animation/principles/prin_trad_anim.htm

Schindler?s List Essay -- essays research papers

The once almost forgotten Hitler Jews are brought back to life by Schindler’s List. The movie opens quietly with a pre-war Polish Jewish family lighting candles and saying prayers on Friday night. The family disappears, and eventually, the candles burn out. The scene switches to a man carefully dressing, stuffing his hand with money and carefully pinning a Nazi pin to his lapel. He is a shadowy figure, paying his way to get a fine table at a fancy restaurant in Krakow, and catching the eye of some Nazi officers. His name is Oscar Schindler and he is just a business man making contacts and buying influence. Soon his wining and dining pays off, as he acquires a manufacturing plant that produces pots and pans for the Nazi Army. Oscar really didn’t have any clue what was going on as far as the situation with the Jews and the Nazi Army. Reality struck him when his workers were being taken away from his ghettos and placed in concentration camps. Jews, who worked for free were his main source of labor. Actually, what the Jews are getting in return is even more valuable than money. Freedom. He is freeing them from being destroyed. Once Schindler recognizes this tragedy, he puts his on life in danger to save all of the Jews that he can. He is so generous that people ask him to let people work in the factory so they will live. He does so. He has a heart but he also does it for his personal gain. At first, he just opens the factory to gain money. In the end, we see him spending all o...

One Place I Would Like to Visit on a Class Trip Essay -- Personal Narr

One Place I Would Like to Visit on a Class Trip New York City is the one place I would very much like to visit on our next class trip. New York City is very large and has lots of exciting and educational activities, such as going to the theater, museums, landmarks and shopping. New York City is located in the state of New York, only 30 minutes to Newark Airport in New Jersey. It makes a perfect place for a class trip. The tourist season runs the entire year, making visiting time flexible. New York City is usually packed with people making the city look very overcrowded. Often there are so many people on the sidewalks you have to walk in the street. People are walking in every direction. You will even see horses and buggies waiting to pick up tourist for a tour of the city,. The place looks very congested, and it doesn?t look like such an enjoyable class trip spot at first, but with a little bit of the spirit of adventure there is tons of things to see. New York City has beautiful skyscrapers. One unique place, the Twin Towers, is very neat. It towers above all the other buildings. It has an elevator that can take you up over 100 stories in about three minutes. When you reach the top there is an observation area where you can see the entire city and surrounding islands. One of the other interesting places in the Intrepid. The Intrepid is an actual retired aircraft carrier. It is now open to the public for a small fee. The Intrepid has been left the same as it was while in active duty, so you can observe original aircraft carrier weapons and equipment. We could walk from the Twin Towers to the Intrepid, as they are both located in the lower part of New York City.. We could make the walk in less than a half-hour. Another day we can go to the Museum of Natural History, where among other things, there are real dinosaur bones. New York City has lots of activities to do at night also. It doesn?t have to be strictly educational, we can take in some fun entertainment too. There is Caroline?s Comedy Club on Broadway, which features different well-known comedian?s every night of the week. There are movie theaters that have 25 different movies at a time. There is also laser tag. Laser tag is very exciting and fun. The place that I would suggest is in the Times Square area. They have a lot of equipment and a large playing area. Th... ...ets. When you?re through, you can either go on to the game room, which has everything imaginable, or you can sign up again for another laser session. Another interesting activity New York City has to offer is the Big Apple Double-decker Tour. First, the tour bus takes you to the lower part of New York City, where you will see the business area. An interesting part of that area is Wall Street, where all the stocks are traded. Next, you go on to midtown, where they will make a stop at Central Park. You can stay longer than the 5 minute break, and catch the next double-decker if you choose. The tour then continues on to uptown, pointing out interesting things like Harlem and Columbia University, to name a few. I think New York City would be the perfect place for a class trip. It has many wonderful activities such as theaters, museums, landmark buildings and shopping. It has unforgettable things to do. The Twin Towers is one of the most unique places. Up until recently they were the largest buildings in the world. New York City is a wonderful place. When I went to New York City I enjoyed it very much, and I recommend it as a place we should visit on our class trip. One Place I Would Like to Visit on a Class Trip Essay -- Personal Narr One Place I Would Like to Visit on a Class Trip New York City is the one place I would very much like to visit on our next class trip. New York City is very large and has lots of exciting and educational activities, such as going to the theater, museums, landmarks and shopping. New York City is located in the state of New York, only 30 minutes to Newark Airport in New Jersey. It makes a perfect place for a class trip. The tourist season runs the entire year, making visiting time flexible. New York City is usually packed with people making the city look very overcrowded. Often there are so many people on the sidewalks you have to walk in the street. People are walking in every direction. You will even see horses and buggies waiting to pick up tourist for a tour of the city,. The place looks very congested, and it doesn?t look like such an enjoyable class trip spot at first, but with a little bit of the spirit of adventure there is tons of things to see. New York City has beautiful skyscrapers. One unique place, the Twin Towers, is very neat. It towers above all the other buildings. It has an elevator that can take you up over 100 stories in about three minutes. When you reach the top there is an observation area where you can see the entire city and surrounding islands. One of the other interesting places in the Intrepid. The Intrepid is an actual retired aircraft carrier. It is now open to the public for a small fee. The Intrepid has been left the same as it was while in active duty, so you can observe original aircraft carrier weapons and equipment. We could walk from the Twin Towers to the Intrepid, as they are both located in the lower part of New York City.. We could make the walk in less than a half-hour. Another day we can go to the Museum of Natural History, where among other things, there are real dinosaur bones. New York City has lots of activities to do at night also. It doesn?t have to be strictly educational, we can take in some fun entertainment too. There is Caroline?s Comedy Club on Broadway, which features different well-known comedian?s every night of the week. There are movie theaters that have 25 different movies at a time. There is also laser tag. Laser tag is very exciting and fun. The place that I would suggest is in the Times Square area. They have a lot of equipment and a large playing area. Th... ...ets. When you?re through, you can either go on to the game room, which has everything imaginable, or you can sign up again for another laser session. Another interesting activity New York City has to offer is the Big Apple Double-decker Tour. First, the tour bus takes you to the lower part of New York City, where you will see the business area. An interesting part of that area is Wall Street, where all the stocks are traded. Next, you go on to midtown, where they will make a stop at Central Park. You can stay longer than the 5 minute break, and catch the next double-decker if you choose. The tour then continues on to uptown, pointing out interesting things like Harlem and Columbia University, to name a few. I think New York City would be the perfect place for a class trip. It has many wonderful activities such as theaters, museums, landmark buildings and shopping. It has unforgettable things to do. The Twin Towers is one of the most unique places. Up until recently they were the largest buildings in the world. New York City is a wonderful place. When I went to New York City I enjoyed it very much, and I recommend it as a place we should visit on our class trip.

Computer Studies

1 GCSE Computing Revision Booklet This booklet has been created to provide an overview of each of the topics that you need to revise. Each section is broken down and guidance given on what you need to know. Use it in conjunction with your own revision techniques, e. g. mindmaps, to prepare for the exam. Name: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 Fundamentals of Computer SystemsYou need to be able to: (a) define a computer system (b) describe the importance of computer systems in the modern world (c) explain the need for reliability in computer systems (d) explain the need for adherence to suitable professional standards in the development, use and maintenance of computer systems (e) explain the importance of ethical, environmental and legal considerations when creating computer systems. What is a computer sys tem? At its very basic, a computer system nothing more than an input, a processor and an output. InputProcessor Output A computer system will usually have some storage capability and more often now – a way of communicating with other devices. Computers are all around us and I’m not just talking about your desktop or laptop computer. Your â€Å"smartphone†, your games console, your ipad, even your Sky+ or freeview recorder is a computer system of sorts. 3 Computer systems are integral parts of our lives. Think about all the computer systems you or your parents use on a daily or weekly basis: Running washing programmes and sensing when clothes are dry.On-board computers to control everything from engine efficiency to voiceactivated MP3/Bluetooth hands-free system. Cashless catering system in school to add and subtract money from your account. Self-service checkouts in supermarkets that scan, weigh, take payment and give change. Contactless card payment systems whe re a small RFID (radio frequency ID) tag is embedded into the card and read when the card is near. RFID technology – often used in library books and shops to detect theft, also has future applications in â€Å"smart† clothes and food products.Imagine the RFID tag in your clothes tells the washing machine how to wash them. Or a smart fridge that knows when the milk is past it’s sell-by date and adds it to your online shopping list. Since we rely so much on technology there are huge problems when it goes wrong! If a supermarket checkout system goes down this could result in lost sales of thousands of pounds. However, if an automated system, like those onboard aircraft fails then it could end in disaster! 4 Why do we need to use the same professional standards when developing and maintaining computer systems?Without standards to adhere to we risk developing systems that are not compatible with each other. Would you be happy if your Nokia mobile could only call othe r Nokia mobiles? Standards also improve the quality of the computer system and its maintenance by ensuring that best practice is followed and people don’t cut corners. Considerations when creating computer systems: The Data Protection Act 1998 provides protection for all information stored on a computer system. It requires the person who owns the system to store the information securely and only use it for the purpose it was originally gathered for, e. . the school holds data on you for the purpose of your education; it cannot sell this data to companies who may wish to sell you things. The speed of progress means that many gadgets become old and obsolete quite quickly. This means there are potentially stockpiles of old technology which could end up in landfill. Many companies now recycle these by selling reconditioned devices to other countries or cannibalising the parts to be used again. Websites like Google use huge server-farms around the world. These buildings are full o f computers running 24/7.There is an impact on the environment from the huge amount of electricity needed to run these server-farms. Technology enables us to do many things. But are they always right? Google’s Street View caused controversy when it was launched after people said that taking photos of their houses was an invasion of privacy. Social networking sites, like Facebook, have made it easier to share information but have made it difficult to set privacy settings. You can now be tracked using GPS technology and Facebook places! Is this the â€Å"Big Brother† state? 5 Computer SoftwareYou need to be able to: (a) explain the need for the following functions of an operating system: user interface, memory management, peripheral management, multi-tasking and security (b) describe the purpose and use of common utility programs for computer security (antivirus, spyware protection and firewalls), disk organisation (formatting, file transfer, and defragmentation), and sy stem maintenance (system information and diagnosis, system cleanup tools, automatic updating) (c) discuss the relative merits of custom written, off the shelf, open source and proprietary software.Operating System functions Memory management User interface The OS manages the transfer of data between the CPU, RAM and main storage (e. g. hard drive) The OS provides the user with a way of controlling the functions of the computer without resorting to machine code. It can be graphical (GUI), e. g. Windows or text-based [no mouse] (CLI – Command Line Interface), e. g. MSDOS. The OS manages the input and output devices connected to the computer, including things like keyboard, mice and printer. The OS allows more than one program to be run at once so users can switch back and forth between applications easily.The OS provides security features to restrict access to the system or particular files. Peripheral management Multi-tasking Security When trying to remember the functions of a n Operating System – think MUMPS! Memory mgt, User interface, Multi-tasking, Peripheral mgt and Security. 6 Utility programs Type Security Purpose Detects and protects the computer against virus threats. Quarantines infected files. Spyware Detects and removes spyware (small protection programs that quietly monitor what you are doing) Firewall Restrict communication in and out of the computer from the applications that are running.Formatting Sets up a hard drive, memory stick or card into a format that the computer can use to store/retrieve data. The process of formatting erases any data that was previously on the storage medium. File Transfer Allows movement of files from one location to another, either locally or via memory stick/FTP to another computer. Defragmentation Re-organises the data on the hard drive to improve read/write access times. System info & Provides information about the diagnosis system in order to help with diagnosis of problems. System cleanup Removes te mporary files and tools compresses/archives unused files to increase free storage space.Automatic Uses the Internet to check the OS updating is up-to-date and applies software patches/fixes as necessary. Program Antivirus Security Security Disk Operations Disk Operations Disk Operations System Maintenance System Maintenance System Maintenance 7 Software development Custom written Developed specifically for a particular organisation. (a. k. a. bespoke/inAdv: custom made to meet exact purpose house) Disadv: very expensive and need technical expertise to develop. Off-the-shelf Developed by a software company to be sold to the general public. Adv: cheaper than developing it yourself and tech support available.Disadv: inflexible – might not do everything you want it to do. Open source Written by general public for everyone else to use. Source code provided so software can be tweaked. Adv: allows anyone to use/adapt the software to meet their needs, collaborative approach to develo pment which can lead to better quality software. Disadv: by making source code available to all, provide opportunity for people to â€Å"take advantage† of software installed on users’ computers compromise security. Proprietary Written by developer and allowed to be used by others but with certain restrictions, e. . can’t adapt software. Source code is hidden. Adv: can allow for different versions of same software, e. g. educational version with limited functionality or fullfunctionality version costing more. Disadv: source code cannot be inspected so may contain spyware or other malicious features within the software. 8 Computer Hardware Definition: Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices. Internal hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners.The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, wh ile external hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Source: www. techterms. com Inputs and Outputs (Peripherals) You need to be able to: understand the need for input and output devices (a) (b) describe suitable input devices for a wide range of computer controlled situations (c) describe suitable output devices for a wide range of computer controlled situations discuss input and output devices for users with specific needs. (d) Inputs and outputs are the computers way of communicating with us – the user.Without inputs or outputs our system would be quite limited. Imagine a calculator which didn’t allow you to type in numbers or display the answer on the screen! Here are some of the common input devices used: Keyboard The keyboard, along with the mouse, is one of the most used input devices. Once you get the hang of where the keys are, it allows people to enter textbased data quickly into the computer. A numerical keypad (found on most keyboards on the right) provides a fast way for accountants and people who work in finance to enter numbers. 9 There are some interesting variations on the keyboard:Roll-up keyboard (portable – can be rolled up and stuffed in laptop bag) Wireless keyboard (no need for messy wires, frees up user needing to be near computer) Laser Projection (projects a keyboard layout on to any surface; sensors detect which â€Å"keys† have been pressed) Mouse The computer mouse is another common input device. It allows the user to interact with the software on screen. The mouse is quite versatile, with at least two buttons and the ability to move in any direction. However, it can be difficult to be precise – e. g. drawing using the mouse is quite hard! Mice have also undergone a few changes over the years as well:Laptop touchpad (touch-sensitive pads that allow the mouse to be controlled by just a finger) Trackball (the user moves the pointer on-screen by moving rolling the ball; the unit doesnâ€℠¢t move around like the mouse) Optical Mouse (old mice used balls which used to get clogged with dirt and grease – new mice use small cameras to detect movement instead). 10 Other Input Devices Scanner Scanners convert physical documents and photos into digital format. They can be used in conjunction with special software to automatically read handwriting and convert it into computer text. This is called Optical Character Recognition.Some tickbox forms are scanned in, like the Census form or your multiple choice Science exams; this is called Optical Mark Recognition. Touchscreen Touchscreens have been around for years in one form or another. The latest versions, like the Apple ipad interface use multi-touch technology to allow greater control. Microphone Microphones convert analogue sounds into a digital format that the computer can understand and playback. Sounds are usually recorded as . wav or . mp3 files (the latter uses compression to make the file size smaller and is mo re likely to be used to store music tracks).Digital Camera Digital cameras convert live images into digital format. Photos are usually stored as JPEG files. The quality and size of the picture is determined by the number of megapixels the camera is capable of detecting, e. g. photos taken with an 8 megapixel camera are made up of 8 million pixels. 11 Webcam Webcams capture live video feeds and using appropriate software can then transmit those across a network. Sensors Sensors measure the physical world and translate that into a digital format that a computer can understand. There are various sensors that detect ll manner of things: movement, light, heat, moisture, gases (e. g. carbon monoxide levels), location (GPS), etc. For example, the iPhone has an accelerometer so it knows which way round it is to ensure the screen is rotated the correct way. Output Devices Printer Printers produce physical documents and photos from digital files. Most photo printing is done by inkjet printers which can be expensive to run. Laser printers use toner cartridges which are more expensive initially but can print more pages before being replaced. 12 Monitor/screen Monitors/screens provide the visual output from the computer system.Most computer monitors and mobile phones use colour LCD (liquid crystal display). Speakers Working the opposite way to the microphone input, the speaker converts digital sound into analogue waves. 3D Printer A 3D printer uses lasers and a special kind of plastic to build physical 3D shapes from drawings made using CAD software (computer aided design). The object is built up layer by layer. The whole process can take many hours before the final product is finished. They are often used for creating prototypes in manufacturing, e. g. Dyson uses them to create prototype parts for their products.They are still very expensive but the price is coming down. Motor A motor can be driven with precision by a computer system. Often used in manufacturing, e. g. bu ilding cars, motors are used to control robotic arms. 13 Input and output devices for specific needs Keyboards have been adapted for users with limited movement in their arms/hands. A keyboard designed to minimise the movement of your hands. Trackballs have also been used where users only have limited motor ability. They can be used by hands or feet, like the one below: A foot-operated mouse, ideal for people with limited/no mobility in their arms.For quadriplegic users, there are two alternatives to using the mouse or keyboard. The first is voice-recognition; this involves the user reading a passage of text from the screen so the computer â€Å"learns† their voice pattern. They can then use special software to control the computer using voice commands. The technology is getting better but can still make mistakes. The second is eye-tracking which uses small cameras mounted on the monitor to detect eye movement and move the cursor to the point where the user is gazing. A mouse click is made by blinking slowly.Stephen Hawking uses a special device to allow him to communicate. An infra-red sensor detects twitches in the cheek muscle below his eyes in order to enter words and then his device generates a computer synthesised voice to read them out loud. 14 Internal Hardware Devices (Components) Central Processing Unit (CPU) You need to be able to: (a) state the purpose of the CPU (b) describe the function of the CPU as fetching and executing instructions stored in memory (c) explain how common characteristics of CPUs such as clock speed, cache size and number of cores affect their performance.The purpose of the CPU is to Fetch and Execute instructions stored in memory. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls the rest of the system. INPUTS and OUTPUTS CPU RAM 15 Fetch Execute Cycle (using Little Man Computer) Download the software: http://www. cs. ru. nl/~erikpoll/III/lmc. Allows you to quit out of the current program and go back to the Start This d isplays which phase of the fetch/execute cycle we are currently in. The program that is currently being carried out. The current instruction is the one in line with the phase display. Provides the name of the current instruction, along with it's op code and operand.This explains what the little man is doing at each stage as he follows the program. Fetch phase Before the little man can carry out an instruction, he needs to find out which instruction he has to carry out. He does this by first getting the value from the program counter (The thing that looks like a green mushroom in a block of wood), and then fetching the value from the corresponding address in memory. The Program Counter The little man uses the value in the program counter to decide which address in memory he should get the next instruction from.After getting the value, but before going and getting that instruction, he increments the program counter, so that it has the correct value in it when he visits it next time. M emory Memory can be used to store programs, and data. In the fetch phase of the fetch execute cycle we are only interested in the fact that we can get instructions from the memory. 16 Execute phase Once the little man knows which instruction he is going to perform, he has to set about actually doing it. This is the ‘Execute' phase of the fetch execute cycle. For each instruction the little man will perform a series of tasks.For instance, for an input instruction, the little man will go to the input tray, take the value he finds there, and go and put it into the calculator. For an add instruction, he will take a value from memory, and add it to the value presently in the calculator. Once the execute phase is complete, the little man will start the cycle again, and head to the program counter to get the value of the next instruction he has to fetch. The Input and Output trays These are what we (the user) use to communicate with the little man. We provide him with data via the in put tray, and when he's ready, he provides us with data via the output tray.Calculator (Arithmetic Logic Unit – ALU) On a ‘real' computer, this would be the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). It’s basically a calculator that will carry out arithmetic operations. Memory Memory is accessed during the execute phase when we need to store or access data. It is possible to overwrite your programs when putting data into memory though, so be careful where you put it. Following a program (Decoding instructions) The program is a series of instructions made up of an op code and operand (either data or the address where data is stored).For example: Op code Operand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 800 801 802 9 Load Store Add Subtract Input Output Halt Skip If Negative Skip If Zero Skip If Positive Jump 2 means â€Å"Store† 2 99 99 refers to the memory address where little man should store the data. These can be stored as binary bit patterns, e. g. 10 could refer to the op code (2) above and 1 1000011 could refer to the memory address (99). Remember 2 in binary is 10 and 99 is 11000011. This would give the bit pattern for the above instruction as 1011000011 Q. How does little man (CPU) know the difference between data or an instruction?It all depends on which phase of the cycle the CPU is in, e. g. in the Fetch phase the CPU knows it is an instruction. In the Execute phase the CPU knows it is data. Op codes understood by LMC 17 Characteristics which affect performance Clock Speed This is the number of cycles that the CPU can complete in one second (measured in Hertz or Hz) A faster clock speed means the CPU can process more instructions per second. For example a 1MHz processor can process 1 million instructions a second; whereas a 1GHz processor can do 1000 million instructions in the same time.This is the A larger cache size means holding area for more data can be held and data from the it’s less likely that any cycles are wasted. A RAM. It ensures the CPU smaller cache size and is always busy fast clock speed may with data. result in a bottleneck between the RAM and CPU. A dual-core processor or This is the quad-core processor is 2 number of processing cores to 4 times faster than a conventional chip as they the CPU has. A can process simultaneous dual-core has instructions. two and is able to process two instructions simultaneously in the same cycle. Cache sizeNumber of Cores It is important to balance all of the above to avoid â€Å"over-speccing† one area and creating bottlenecks elsewhere. 18 Memory You need to be able to: (a) describe the difference between RAM and ROM (b) explain the need for ROM in a computer system (c) describe the purpose of RAM in a computer system (d) explain how the amount of RAM in a personal computer affects the performance of the computer (e) explain the need for virtual memory (f) describe cache memory (g) describe flash memory (h) discuss how changes in memory technologies are leading to innovative c omputer designs.RAM and ROM Both are needed in a computer system but for different reasons. In a computer computer, ROM (Read Only Memory) is used to store all the instructions (the BIOS – Basic Input/Output System) to get the computer up and running. It seeks out the amount of memory, input and outputs available to it and then loads up the operating system. In some computer systems, like your washing machine, the ROM stores the software to control the hardware, as well as data such as cooking/washing times etc.RAM (Random Access Memory) is used as temporary storage for instructions and data between the inputs, outputs, secondary storage (e. g. hard drive) and CPU. The larger the RAM, the more instructions/data can be held in quick access memory without needing to use Virtual memory; this can improve performance. Random Access Memory Read Only Memory Volatile (forgets everything when power switched off) Non-volatile (remembers content even if power switched off) Can be writte n to and read from Can only be read from (not written to) Usually measured in Gigabytes (Gb) For the BIOS, usually measured in Kilobytes (Kb) 9 Virtual Memory Depending on the size of the RAM, it is not always possible to store all the running programs in the RAM at once and the computer will start running low on memory and slow down. This is where virtual memory comes in. It stores the data that the RAM isn’t actively using on the hard drive to free up the RAM. Then, when the CPU needs the data it pulls it back from the virtual memory on the hard drive. As far as the CPU is concerned, all the programs are running from the RAM. The operating system sets up a page file on the hard drive to be used for virtual memory.This is usually set at twice the size of the amount of RAM, e. g. 1GB of RAM should have a 2GB page file. Cache Memory This has been explained in the CPU section on page 17. Flash Memory Flash Memory is often referred to as solid-state storage, which means that the re are no moving parts. It’s similar to RAM but is non-volatile which means when the power is cut off, it still remembers the content). Flash memory is used in USB memory sticks and memory cards for digital cameras and some games consoles, e. g. Sony PSP.Future developments in Memory technologies Physical Size & Capacity Costs Speed Power Memory chips have become more compact (storing more bits per chip) which has lead to smaller computing devices and larger capacities. The cost of memory has fallen which means it is now affordable to have large amounts of RAM available. Read/write times are improving which mean faster access and better performance. Memory chips are more power-efficient meaning portable devices work for longer between charges and batteries can be smaller and lighter. 20 Secondary StorageYou need to be able to: (a) explain the need for secondary storage (b) describe common storage technologies such as optical, magnetic and solid state (c) select suitable stora ge devices and storage media for a given application and justify their choice using characteristics such as capacity, speed, portability, durability and reliability. Secondary storage is needed for when we want to store files permanently or semi-permanently. We might want to transfer files between computers by using portable secondary storage media. Storage TechnologiesCodes data using microscopic dips on the surface of the disc. Units Optical Codes data using small changes in magnetic fields. Magnetic Uses non-volatile memory chips to store bits of data Solid State Candidates should be able to: (a) define the terms bit, nibble, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte Bit 1 Nibble 4 bits Byte 8 bits Kilobyte (Kb) 1,024 bytes Megabyte (Mb) 1,024 kilobytes Gigabyte (Gb) 1,024 megabytes Terabyte (Tb) 1,024 gigabytes 21 Storage Media Comparison Storage Medium CD Method Optical Capacity Medium 650-700Mb Small 1. 4Mb Large 1Gb to 2+ Tb Speed Fast access Portability Lightweight and fl at Lightweight and flat Heavy and not designed to be carried around. Requires integrating into computer system. Medium-weight. Plugs into computer USB or Firewire port. Lightweight and small. Durability and Reliability Easily scratched and will then not work. Can only be written to once. Can be snapped. Can be damaged by strong magnets or heat. Quite reliable but can crash – when the read/write head crashes into the platter. Sometimes happens on laptops when dropped. Can be damaged by magnets.Same concerns as internal hard drive. Floppy Disk Magnetic Slow access Internal Hard Disk Magnetic Fast access (dependent on speed of motor RPM – rotations per minute) Portable Hard Disk Magnetic Large 40Gb to 640Gb Medium-fast access (dependent on connection method, e. g. USB cable) Flash drive (USB stick or memory card) Blu-ray disc DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) Solidstate Optical Optical Medium/Larg Medium-fast access e (dependent on connection 1Gb to 64Gb method, e. g. USB cabl e or card reader) Large Fast access 50Gb Large Fast access 4. 7Gb Not affected by magnets.Quite hardy. Can be dropped without damaging contents. Easily scratched and will then not work. Easily scratched and will then not work. Lightweight and flat. Lightweight and flat. 22 Binary Logic You need to be able to: (a) explain why data is represented in computer systems in binary form (b) understand and produce simple logic diagrams using the operations NOT, AND and OR (c) produce a truth table from a given logic diagram. Computers use binary as it's a lot simpler. Each CPU is made up of millions of transistors which can only have two states (ON/OFF).Anything can be converted into a binary number so a computer can understand, process and store it. NOT Gate NOT Truth Table Input Output 0 1 1 0 Flips the input, e. g. 0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0. AND Gate a b Waits for 1 on both inputs before outputting a 1. AND Truth Table Input Input Output a b 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 OR Gate a b Wait for 1 on either input before outputting a 1. OR Truth Table Input Input Output a b 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 You can practice with NOT, AND and OR gates using the following website: http://logic. ly/demo/ 23 Representation of data in computer systemsNumbers You need to be able to: (a) convert positive denary whole numbers (0-255) into 8-bit binary numbers and vice versa (b) add two 8-bit binary integers and explain overflow errors which may occur (c) convert positive denary whole numbers (0-255) into 2-digit hexadecimal numbers and vice versa (d) convert between binary and hexadecimal equivalents of the same number (e) explain the use of hexadecimal numbers to represent binary numbers. Denary and Binary conversions Numbers greater than 1 can be represented in binary by using more bits. e. g. 129 can be represented in 8 bit (byte) binary as 10000001.Denary Binary 128 1 64 0 32 0 16 0 8 0 4 0 2 0 1 1 This means that if you put a 1 on each increased by double bit (i. e. 11111111) the highest denary for each new bit added to the left. number 8 bits (a byte) can store is 255; 128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 = 255. Notice how the number To convert binary into denary, just add together the denary numbers above each bit that has 1 in it, e. g. 10000001 = 128 + 1 = 129. To convert a denary number into binary, find the highest value that will go into it and then continue down the number of bits with the remainder until there is nothing remaining. 4 For example, to convert 44 into binary 8-bit format: 44 is smaller than 128 and 64 so we place 0s in those bits: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 does go into 44 with remainder of 12, so we place a 1 in that bit: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 The remainder of 12 is smaller than 16 so we place a 0 in that bit: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 does go into 12 with remainder of 4, so we place a 1 in that bit: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 does go into 4 with with nothing remaining, so we place a 1 in that bit: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 1 nd 0s in all the remaining bits: Denary Binary 128 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 1 4 1 2 0 1 0 Therefore 44 as an 8-bit binary number is: 00101100. 25 Adding two binary numbers together Adding two binary numbers together is not as scary as it sounds or looks. It uses the same principles at the denary number system (Hundreds, Tens, Units). For example: Work from right to left, like you do when adding denary numbers using HTUs. 00010010 + 00010100 0+0=0 0+0=0 0+0+1 1+1=0 0+0=0 0 0 11 0 0 1 1 0 0+0=0 1+0=1 0+1=1 (carried over) = 1 (carry 1)Let’s convert it back into denary to check it is correct: Denary 128 Binary 0 16 + 2 = 18 Denary 128 Binary 0 16 + 4 = 20 Denary 128 Binary 0 32 + 4 + 2 = 38 64 0 32 0 16 1 8 0 4 0 2 1 1 0 64 0 32 0 16 1 8 0 4 1 2 0 1 0 64 0 32 1 16 0 8 0 4 1 2 1 1 0 So as 18 + 20 are 38. Then we know the binary calculation is correct! 26 Hexadecimal Numbers Programmers started to use hexadecimal to reduce mistakes and make it easier for them to underst and than using lots of 0s and 1s. Denary and hexadecimal conversions Hexadecimal uses a base 16 system = 0-9 and then A-F.That means that the denary number 15 is equal to F in hexadecimal. The denary number 16 is equal to 10 in hexadecimal (which means 1 lot of 16) The highest denary number represented in 8-bit (byte) binary is 255 and was represented by 11111111. In hexadecimal this would be represented as FF (15 lots of 16 + 15). Confused?! Remember, F in hexadecimal represents 15. Therefore F0 would be 15*15=240. The second F is 15, therefore FF = 240+15 = 255. To convert denary to hexadecimal you can divide the number by 16. For example, to convert 141 into hexadecimal do the following: 141 / 16 = 8 remainder 13. /16 = 0 remainder 8. Therefore, working from right to left, the hexadecimal number is 8 13 (and 13 is represented as D in hex) so it would be 8D. Alternatively, convert the denary number into binary and then binary to hexadecimal. 27 Binary to hexadecimal conversions To convert binary to hexadecimal you need to break it down into nibbles (blocks of 4 bits). For example, 141 as a binary number is: 10001101. The two nibbles are 1000 and 1101. Converting each nibble into denary we can see that 1000 = 8 and 1101 = 13.Remembering that 13 = D in hexadecimal then 141 would be represented as 8D. To convert hexadecimal to binary you just reverse the process. Convert each part of the hexadecimal number into nibbles of binary numbers. For example: Hex Denary Binary 8 8 1 4 0 nibble D 2 0 1 0 8 1 4 1 nibble 2 0 1 1 HELP! This conversion chart below may help to make sense of it all! Denary 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Denary 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Binary 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 Hexadecimal 8 9 A B C D E F 8 Using binary to represent characters You need to be able to: (a) explain the use of binary codes to represent characters (b) explain the term character set (c) describe with exampl es (for example ASCII and Unicode) the relationship between the number of bits per character in a character set and the number of characters which can be represented. Computers use the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) format to use binary codes to represent numbers, letters and special characters. It uses 8-bits (byte) to represent each character, so every character has it’s own unique 8-bit ASCII code.Using the ASCII character set on the next page we can convert characters into binary numbers. For example, Isambard would be represented in binary as: I s a m b a r d = = = = = = = = 73 115 97 109 98 97 114 100 = = = = = = = = 0100 1001 0111 0011 0110 0001 0110 1101 0110 0010 0110 0001 0111 0010 0110 0100 Notice how the capital I is different from the lowercase i in the ASCII format. An upper and lower case version of each letter is present in the chart to enable the computer to tell the difference between them. If you remember what we said about binar y numbers back on page 23 then you know that 8-bits (a byte) can store up to 255 in denary.This means that the ASCII format can have up to 255 characters represented in a character set. 29 American Standard Code for Information Interchange character set Note: You don’t need to remember these codes for your exam but just be aware of how it works. 30 Using binary to represent images You need to be able to: (a) explain the representation of an image as a series of pixels represented in binary (b) explain the need for metadata to be included in the file such as height, width and colour depth (c) discuss the effect of colour depth and resolution n the size of an image file. Images on the computer are made up of lots of individual pixels (small squares of colour). If you zoom into any image enough times you will see these little blocks of colour. We can use binary numbers to represent each pixel. In a simple image, where there are only two colours (colour depth of 1) then we can si mply use a 1 for one colour, and 0 for another. For example, look at this small 3 x 3 pixel image below. The 1s represent the black colour and the 0s represent the white. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 31 That is the principle behind storing images as binary. However, we also need to know a few other things about the image in order to display it correctly, i. e. its height, width and colour depth. Image Metadata Height Width Colour depth Resolution The height of the image in pixels The width of the image in pixels The number of bits available to represent each pixel The pixels per inch (PPI) – if the pixels per inch is high, then the resolution and image quality is also high.Without this metadata the computer would not be able to reconstruct the image properly. Colour Depth In a simple 1-bit colour depth image, we can only display two colours. However, in an 8-bit colour depth image (like the gif format), we can display 256 colours (one for each binary number from 00000000 to 11111111). In a 24-bit colour depth image (like the jpeg format), we can display just over 16 million colours! If we use more bits to store each pixel, then the file size will be larger. That is why . gif images are often smaller in file size than . peg images. Resolution If the image has a higher resolution, it has more pixels to store data about and is therefore larger in size. If the image is lower resolution, this means that there are less pixels per inch, which means less pixels to store data about and is therefore smaller in size. 32 Using binary to represent sound You need to be able to: (a) explain how sound can be sampled and stored in digital form (b) explain how sampling intervals and other considerations affect the size of a sound file and the quality of its playback.Sound is stored in the computer by taking samples of the sound wave at regular intervals and converting those into binary numbers (using an analogue-to-digital convertor). The computer can then re-create the sound by reve rsing the process. The file size and quality of the sound recording is affected by the sample rate and bit rate. The sample rate refers to the number of samples taken each second. It is measured in Hertz (like the CPU clock speed). If the sound wave is not sampled at a higher enough rate, this can lower the quality of the sound recording, but the file size would be smaller.If the sound wave is sampled at a higher sampling rate, this will increase the quality of the recording, but the file size will be much larger. The bit rate refers to the amount of bits used to store the different levels of sound at each sampling interval. The more bits, the greater range of levels that can be distinguished. This also has the affect of increasing the file size if the bit rate is high (e,g. 16-bit instead of 8-bit). 33 Computer Communications and NetworksNetworks You need to be able to: (a) explain the advantages of networking stand-alone computers into a local area network (b) describe the hardwar e needed to connect stand-alone computers into a local area network, including hub/switches, wireless access points (c) explain the different roles of computers in a client-server and a peer-to-peer network (d) describe, using diagrams or otherwise, the ring, bus and star network topologies (e) describe the differences between a local area network and a wide area network such as the Internet explain the terms IP addressing, MAC addressing, packet and (f) protocols (g) explain the need for security measures in networks, such as user access levels, suitable passwords and encryption techniques (h) describe and justify network policies such as acceptable use, disaster recovery, failover, back up, archiving. Why network? Allows computers to communicate with each other and share resources, e. g. peripherals (printers, scanners), storage, internet access. Data Packets Information is sent around a network in data packets. Data is broken down into packets to be sent over the network and ofte n may take different routes to get there. It contains info on where it needs to go (the address) and the packet number and an error-checking facility to ensure the packet arrives intact and can be put back together in the right order. 34Basic components of a local area network (LAN) Client/ Computer Hub, Switch or Router See next page for explanation of each. Server In a Client-Server network, the server handles the logins, applications and file storage. Modem Interfaces between the Internet and the network. Shared Peripherals Networks allow peripherals like this printer to be shared by all the computers on the network. Internet 35 Hub, Switch or Router? These are not the same. You need to know the difference between them. Hub A hub receives all data sent over the network and sends it to all the other devices on the network. Only the device who the data packet is for will acknowledge it; the other devices will ignore it.A switch is bit more intelligent than a hub and it learns which devices are on the network (and their port number/address) and only sends the data packet to the computer who is the intended recipient. This is more efficient than a hub as it doesn’t result in lots of unnecessary network traffic. A router is cleverer still than both hubs and switches. It can re-direct network traffic and deal with different packets in different ways. It can protect the computers on the network by hiding them from the outside world (i. e. a firewall). Some routers have a modem built-in and wireless capabilities. Most homes have a 4-port wireless broadband router to access the Internet. This combines the router and modem functions. Switch RouterWireless access points don't require a physical connection and therefore are suited for a variety of different devices and provide access to network over an area, e. g. iPad or smartphone. IP address The IP address (Internet Protocol) is a computer's unique address on the network, e. g. 192. 168. 0. 1 is usually your home router's address. On the Internet, each website has its own or several IP addresses. 36 MAC address The MAC address (Media Access Control) is a hexadecimal number that is unique to that particular device. Hey! Did you know that there are 281,474,976,710,656 possible MAC addresses in the world? That’s a lot of MACs baby†¦ huh huh! Network Protocols Protocols are a set of standards and guidelines that tell computers how they should handle the sending and receiving of data over the network.TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) Used to exchanged data between computers on a network and route packets between networks and over the Internet. Used on WWW to transfer webpages and web content from the website host server to the computer requesting the page. Used to transfer files between computers over a network. Used to transport emails. HTTP (HyperText transfer Protocol) FTP (File Transfer protocol) SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) LAN or WAN? A L AN is a Local Area Network which is usually set-up within a certain area, e. g. a building or group of buildings – hence the term â€Å"local†. A WAN is a Wide Area Network which is usually on a nationwide or worldwide scale. The Internet is an example of a WAN – a series of interconnected LANs. 7 Network Topologies A network can be set up in three main ways: Ring 4 3 5 1 2 All the computers are linked together in a ring and data packets are sent one way round. For example in the diagram above to get from PC 1 to PC 5 the data needs to go through PCs 2, 3 and 4. It can’t go anti-clockwise back to PC 5. Drawbacks: If there is one break in the ring then the network breaks down. Also not very efficient as a lot of network traffic doesn’t take the most direct route. Bus All the computers are connected to a central bus. You can add and take away computers easily in a bus network as the computers are connected to the central bus, rather than between one another.Drawbacks: Only one computer can use the bus at once which means only one computer can communicate at a time – the others have to wait until the bus is free before sending their data; this makes it slow. If a computer connected to the bus breaks down, then the network still runs but if the central bus breaks down then so does the whole network. 38 Star 4 3 5 1 2 All the computers are connected to central server. The server can handle multiple communications at once and re-directs traffic over the network. More computers can be added or taken away without affecting the network. Drawbacks: If the main server fails then the network goes down. Client-server and peer-to-peer networks In a Client-server network, the server acts as the main computer handling login requests, user storage, etc.The client could be any computer. The user can log on to any client and still access their stuff on the server. In a Peer-to-peer network, each computer shares information equally and pl ays an equal role in the network. Network Security Part of Data Protection Act 1998 requires companies who store data electronically to keep it safe and secure. Without security then anyone could hack into the network and intercept data packets. Confidential data packets should be encrypted so if they are intercepted they are unreadable. There may be a need to prevent unauthorised access to particular areas of the system; this could be controlled by passwords and different user levels, e. g. n the school a student can only access the student shared drive, whereas teachers can access both the student shared drive and the staff shared drive. 39 Network Management Policies Disaster recovery In the event of the system failing there needs to be plans in place to get the network up and running again as quickly as possible. Many organisations, such as banks, have a disaster recovery plan which may mean relocating to a different location (if the building is no longer accessible). Failover a nd backups If there is a power cut, many networks have UPS (uninterrupted power supplies) which are large batteries with enough charge to keep the network going long enough to shut it down correctly. If a hard drive fails, there is usually a backup which can take the strain.Networks are often backed up at least daily and these backups are stored off-site or in a fire-proof safe so in the event of a disaster in the building, the data is still intact. Maintenance Sometimes data needs to be kept but is not accessed regularly. This data can be archived off onto tape to help free up space on the network. Acceptable Use It is important for the network to have an acceptable usage policy to provide users with guidelines about what they can and can’t do using it. For example, it would use up vital network bandwidth if some users decided to play a network game or download the latest torrent from the Internet. If users start file sharing copyrighted materials, like music, using the netw ork then there is a legal issue to consider as well. 40 The InternetYou need to be able to: (a) describe the nature of the Internet as a worldwide collection of computer networks (b) describe the hardware needed to connect to the Internet including modems, routers etc (c) explain the need for IP addressing of resources on the Internet and how this can be facilitated by the role of DNS servers (d) explain the importance of HTML and its derivatives as a standard for the creation of web pages (e) describe common file standards associated with the Internet such as JPG, GIF, PDF, MP3, MPEG (f) explain the importance of compressing files that are transmitted via the Internet (g) describe the differences between lossy and lossless compression. What happens when you type in a web address in your browser? When you enter a web address in your browser, it heads off via your modem to your ISP’s (Internet Service Provider) domain name servers (DNS).These computers store the IP address(es) for each website and directs your request to the relevant server hosting the webpage you want to view. The information is then sent back to your ISP and then back to your computer. Why HTML? HTML (HyperText Markup Language) provides a standard format which any computer with web browser can interpret and display the pages. It allowed the World Wide Web to get going as there was a universal standard that everyone could now use to share information. 41 Common file formats used on the Internet . html . jpg HTML Web page JPEG image Used to store webpages Used to store photos as can show up to 16. 7 million colours. Used for simple graphics and short animations – can show up to 256 colours.Used to store noneditable documents for viewing on the Internet using the free Adobe viewer software. Used to store music tracks. Compressed to make downloading faster. Used to store videos. Compressed to make downloading faster. Used for Adobe Flash files to add interaction and/or animations to websites. Used to store video files playable using free Apple viewer software. .gif Graphic Interchange format image .pdf Adobe Portable Document format .mp3 MP3 Music format .mpg MPEG video format .swf Shockwave Flash format .mov Apple Quicktime format Why compress on the Internet? The Internet can be slow at times, especially in it’s early days relying on early 56Kbps modems as opposed to the 3-4 Mbps average.Therefore if you could compress the files that were being sent on the Internet, then you sent smaller files, and smaller file sizes meant faster downloads. It also frees up the network and avoids clogging up the bandwidth. 42 Lossless versus Lossy Compression Lossless compression Compression used means the original file stays completely intact and unchanged. Used for text documents, data files and executable programs where it would not be desirable for parts to be lost. Used for multimedia files, i. e. sound, images, video. Lossy compression Compression which involves discarding parts of the file which won’t be noticed if they are not present.For example, it is possible to remove some data within an image and your brain fills in the gaps. Take a look at the images of the dog below: Source: wikipedia. org The image has more compression applied to it as you go from left to right. Even though the image on the right in heavily compressed, we can still see it is a dog. Our brain fills in the gaps. 43 Databases What is a database? A database is a persistent organised store of data which can be easily and quickly searched. They are most commonly used for Marketing, e. g. loyalty cards. Huge databases are searched for patterns in customer’s buying habits and then targeted coupons are mail shot to customers.The school has several databases to store everything from your behaviour logs and Brunels, to your address, date of birth and even how much money you have on your lunch card! Data handling software, such as Microsoft Access, allow users to: add tables, define fields and validation (create) add/edit/delete data (maintain) run queries to extract information from the database (interrogate) DBMS (Database Management System) Many large databases use a database management system (DBMS). This system separates the data stored from the data handling applications used to maintain and interrogate the database. Feature Concurrent usage Security Recovery & Backup Data integrity Why is this good? Allows multiple users to use the database at the same time Provides bility to allow/restrict data access to individuals or applications Provides backup solution and recovery tools to ensure data is not lost in event of failure Enforcing data integrity by ensuring data is consistent and adheres to the rules Relational databases A flat-file database is when all of the data and fields are stored in one table, e. g. an excel spreadsheet full of names and addresses – see below: 44 A relational database is when that data is separated i nto individual tables (entities) that are linked by a primary key (which appears in each table). Student Student ID First name Surname Class Class ID Student ID Teacher ID Teacher Teacher ID Name SubjectIn the example above, the STUDENT, CLASS and TEACHER are all tables (entities) in the database. The id is the unique piece of information (the primary key) that identifies each instance of a student, class or teacher. We couldn’t use First Name as the primary key in STUDENT as many people share the same first name – it isn’t unique enough! The advantage of separating the data into different entities is to avoid data redundancy – when the same data is stored in several places in the database. Let’s imagine if we stored the information above in a flat-file database (all in one table) – it would look something like this: Duplicated data Can you see the duplicated information?Not only does this use up space but it is easier to make a mistake (and lose data integrity) if we only update one of the records. E. g. if Miss Parsons gets married and her name changes to Mrs Smith then we need to make this change for every record in the database. If are using a relational database, because the Teacher’s name is stored in a separate table and linked to the rest of the entities, we only need to update it in the TEACHER table once. In the CLASS entity, both Teacher ID and Student ID are foreign keys (primary keys that when linked to another table become foreign keys in that table). Components of a relational database Tables Represents the entity in the database. Fields and primary keys are defined and data stored in the table. Create) Forms Provide a customisable user interface to add/edit and delete data (Maintain) Queries Allow data that meets specific criteria to be extracted and displayed (Interrogate) Reports Displays the results of queries in a customised format designed to be printed Querying a database 45 When interrogat ing a database, you need to specify the fields you wish to display and the criterion you will use to search. E. g. if you were searching for a car on a car supermarket website you might search using the make of the car you wanted: Make = â€Å"Ford† You could also use logical operators such as (NOT equal to), < (less than), > (greater than), = (greater than or equal to). E. g. Mileage